A Survey of Large Language Models

Abstract The rapid evolution of large language models (LLMs) has driven a transformative shift in artificial intelligence (AI), reshaping both research paradigms and practical applications. Additionally, we identify critical research issues, including those concerning theoretical foundations, efficient scaling, alignment, and agentic capability, and highlight the open challenges they present.

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• 1 Distinguished from their predecessors by unprecedented scale and advanced capabilities, LLMs necessitate new frameworks for understanding their development, behavior, and societal impact.
• 2 This survey systematically reviews recent advancements in LLM techniques across four key dimensions: (1) pre-training methodologies, which establish core model capabilities through large-scale self-supervised training, architectural innovations, and data curation strategies; (2) post-training techniques, including supervised fine-tuning and reinforcement learning, which adapt foundational models to downstream tasks and enhance their alignment and safety; (3) utilization strategies, such as in-context learning, prompt engineering, and agentic reasoning, that optimize real-world deployment and enable effective interaction with external environments; and (4) evaluation methods, encompassing benchmarks for key ability dimensions such as core language capabilities, reasoning, and safety, which support comprehensive and reliable assessment of model performance.
• 3 Additionally, we identify critical research issues, including those concerning theoretical foundations, efficient scaling, alignment, and agentic capability, and highlight the open challenges they present.

This research advances how AI systems learn, reason, and solve problems — with direct implications for automation and scientific discovery.

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